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Sacred or Revered Texts:
The main text is the
Bible
. Also, during the Period of Isolation a text called
Konshirisan no Ryaku
("Essentials of Contrition") was utilized. This work outlined how to obtain
forgiveness of sins in the absence of clergy (Nosco: 7).
With St. Francis Xavier as the accredited leader (Finkbeiner 63), the first missionaries in Japan were Roman Catholics from Spain ( Christianity , Mullins: 12). After Christianity's great initial success, Japanese authorities began to view the Western religion as an intrusive foreign element and a threat to national stability ( Christianty , Mullins: 12). The Christian tradition required exclusive dedication which clashed with the traditions of Japanese religions ("Ideology," Mullins: 262). Even today, many Japanese people view Buddhism as a household obligation and Shintoism as a communal obligation, and they incorporate both into their lives through various festivals andancestor rites ("Ideology," Mullins: 262).
In 1564, missionaries were expelled from Kyotoby Emperor Ogimachi and allowed to return in 1569 by Oda Nobunaga (Nosco: 5). In 1587, missionarieswere ordered to leave Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi , but this decree was not particularly enforced(Nosco: 5). The 1614 Expulsion Edict issued by Tokugawa Ieyasu brought about enforcement (Nosco: 5).In the mid 1600's, the Japanese Shogunate demanded the expulsion of all European missionaries andthe execution of all converts ( Christian , Mullins: 12).
For two centuries, the "hidden Christians" ( kakure kirishitan ) continued to secretly practice theirfaith ( Christian , Mullins: 12). Of the seven holy sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony), only baptism was allowed to flourish under the conditions of that period, because this sacrament was necessary for salvation and did not require an ordained priest (Nosco: 7). Abbreviated funeral services were also performed secretly before or after Buddhist services (Nosco: 7). Confirmation and ordination required the presence of a Bishop and marriage ceremonies were never common even before Christians were forced underground. Penance (defined as confession and repentance) could not be ignored because forgiveness is central in Christian theology. A text entitled Konshirisan no Ryaku ("Essentials of Contrition") emerged and included instructions on how to obtain forgiveness without the presence of clergy (Nosco: 7).
The second wave of Chrstianity in Japan was during the Meiji Restoration that began in 1868 and ended with the Meiji Era and World War II in 1945. In 1853, Commodore Perry convinced the Japanese to reopen their doors to the West, and in 1859 Roman Catholic missionaries returned and along with the first Protestant missionaries ( Chirstian , Mullins: 12).
Because Western missionaries initially hoped to avoid denominational labels, the first Protestant church established was non-denominational. The Church of Christ (estab. 1872) of Japan did not mark the beginning of a trend, and such labels emerged in a matter of years, following the abolishment of the law outlawing Christianity ( Christian , Mullins: 13).
The Meiji Constitution of themid-1800's guaranteed religious freedom, but by the 1930's the government became more "totalitarian" ( Christian , Mullins: 18). As a tool of unification and modernization, Shinto beliefs andpractices were labelled as patriotic, and the government came to require participation regardless of religious affiliation ( Christian , Mullins: 19). Shintoism became a symbol of nationality and those who did not comply with the governmental requirements faced persecution. Japanese churches became increasingly controlled by government demands -- a conflict between sacred and secular existence ( Christian , Mullins: 20).
Mullins identifies "three bands" of early groups of Prostestantism in Kimamoto, Yokohama , and Sapporo . While missionary instruction dominated the Yokohama "Band," lay educators flourished in the Kumamoto and Sapporo "Bands" ( Christianity , Mullins: 16). For example, one teacher named Captain Leroy Lansing Janes taught the Bible without political slants and "theological confessions" inherent in clergy instruction ( Christian , Mullins: 16). This historic influence remains apparent in "indigenous Christian movements" in Japan. Their "experiential orientation" varies greatly from the theologically orientated mission churches ( Christian , Mullins: 17).
In 1882, Protestant establishments included nine boys' schools, fifteen girls' schools, thirty-nine coeducational schools, and seven theological seminaries ( Christian , Mullins: 17). The Christian Yearbook , a Protestant publication, claimed only fifty-nine members in 1873, and claims 31,361 members in 1891. In 1890, the Roman Catholic Church claimed 44,505 members, and in 1900, the Russian Orthodox Church claimed 25,698 in membership ( Christian , Mullins: 18). According to Mullins, some non-Christian Japanese leaders considered making Christianity the state religion of Japan. "This was understood as an effective strategy for making Japan a recognized member of the international community as quickly as possible ( Christian , Mullins: 20).
1930 marked the beginning of an industrial revolution in Japan, and hence welcomed the problems inherent with a quickly changing economy ( Christian , Mullins: 18). Growth was remarkable between 1901 and 1930, as the Protestant church grew in membership nearly four times its size. The Roman Catholic Church's numbers appear to have nearly doubled in those three decades. ( Christian , Mullins: 18). White-collar class urbanites were most receptive to Christian efforts during this period ( Christian , Mullins: 18).
In 1939, the Diet (governing body of Japan) passed the Religious Organizations Law ( Shukyo dantai ho ) in which they reserved the right to disband religious groups whose teachings conflicted with the "Imperial Way" ("Ideology," Mullins: 263). In 1941, a revised Peace Preservation Law was passed. The intial version of 1925 was issued to control socialism and communist movements ("Ideology," Mullins: 262), and the revised version included "'dangerous ideas'" (264). This defined type of ideas included any thought process that strayed from the dominant polity of that time which painted Japan as the divine nation with entitlement to absolute rule by way of Manifest Destiny ("Ideology," Mullins: 264). Many churches adjusted to survive within the nationalistic society. The Roman Catholic Church and most Protestant churches requested that their members comply with civil rituals ("Ideology," Mullins: 264). Theological accomodations or "indigenous theologies" of that time include Japan as the designated kingdom of God and Japanese people the chosen people to establish a kingdom of peace in Asia ("Ideology," Mullins: 264).
The Kyodan, which consisted of thirty-four denominations, worked to accomodate the national circumstances ("Ideology," Mullins: 265). In 1941, this "government directed union" complied with most of the government's demands. The government remained skeptical of Christian philosophies. For example, even though God is the creator over all, he could not have created the emperor, who was a divine being himself ("Ideology," Mullins: 266).
One high profile development during this period was the emergence of Tokko, of the Japanese Special Higher Police. Their goal was to identify deviant beliefs and control them ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). Their initial targets until the 1930's were socialist and communist organizations. Once that situation was under control, they began to scrutinize Christians (attended lectures, services, prayer groups). Mark Mullins notes that the incline in religious arrests at that time coincide with a decline in political arrests ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). Figures show that between 1935 and 1943, twenty-two percent of total arrests were religious ("Ideology," Mullins: 268).
After controlling for political threats, Mullins suggests that the Tokko shifted focus to religious minorities partly to justify their own existence ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). They redefined what was considered acceptable by way of beliefs and practices ("Ideology," Mullins: 269). The Christian focus on world renewal came to be viewed as a threat of revolution. The first religious group to be investigated was Jehovah's Witness, in January 1939 ("Ideology," Mullins: 270). In June 1939 arrests started and by 1941, fifty-three Jehovah's Witnesses were charged with violations.
Perhaps the most "dangerous" element of the Christian belief system was the idea that God'skingdom would inevitably overturn present rule of the Emperor ("Ideology," Mullins: 272). Difficult questions were hurled at clergy members. For example, was the Emperor a sinner, too? If there is only one God, is the Emperor not also divine? Should the Emperor also become the servant of God ("Ideology," Mullins: 274)? All prisoners were pardoned by MacArthur and the Occupation government on November 13, 1945.The Peace Preservation Law was also lifted ("Ideology," Mullins: 275). Mullins ventures that this persecution was a response to a numerically insignificant and unthreatening, marginal group. This was merely the goverment's warning for others and a "reaffirmation of a national identity under fire" ("Ideology," Mullins: 277).
The Postwar Period marked a great many changes throughout Japanese religious and governmentalinstitutions, and marked the beginning of the third wave of Christian influence. Following the August 15, 1945 surrender and susequent arrival of the Occupation Forces ,in December 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces called for the Disestablishment of State Shinto ( Christian , Mullins: 21). Participation became voluntary, and the organization was stripped of all legal authority and government funding ( Christian , Mullins: 22).
The postwar Constitution of Japan (1947) provided religious freedom and the separation of church and state. The document also required all religious organizations to register as "'religious judical persons'" and were "placed on equal footing" ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Thus began the free market religious economy of Japan.
A major population shift occured in the 1950's and 1960's, because workers were needed in developing industries and efforts for economic recovery ( Christian , Mullins: 22). In 1950, 37.5% of the population was urban, and in 1980, that number climbed to 76.1% ( Christian , Mullins: 22). In this context, religion was no doubt a means of coping with crises and postwar devastation ( Christian , Mullins: 22).
During the early Postwar years, Christian churches gained a considerable following particularly among the educated middle class ( Christian , Mullins: 23). Prewar denominations were reestablished. General MacArthur called for "missionary reinforcements" in church recovery efforts and the rebuilding of Japan. Numerous new evangelical churches from Europe and North America emerged ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Between 1949 and 1953, 1500 new missionaries sprang up in Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Membership leveled out in the 1950's, and this can be accredited to the expanded religious economyof Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 23). During this era of growth, the educated middle class was most receptive to missionary efforts. When wartime numbers are compared to postwar figures, Protestant membership doubled (from 190,000 to 400,000) and Roman Catholic membership grew over three times in size (from 100,000 to 323.599) ( Christian ., Mullins: 23).
The number of followers has remained fairly constant in recent years. Mullins states that Christian influences are significant today in Japan and have affected the education and social welfare ( Christian , Mullins: 23). Optimistic figures from a 1984 NHK Survey on Japanese Religious Consciousness show that 2% of Japanese people are Christians, and 12% the people have empathy towards Christianity. Despite acknowledgable influence, Mullins states that overall, mission churches have not found a receptive audience in Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 23).
As a latecomer to Japan's religious scheme, Christianity has maintained the label, "foreign religion" ( Christian , Mullins: 24). Within this scheme exist indigenous ("native orientated") amd nonindigenous sects ("foreign orientated"). Mullins uses three criteria for indigenous religions: self-government, self-support, and self-propagation ( Christian , Mullins: 27).Foreign-orientated churches still welcome foreign missionaries and Western churches serve as models for theological understanding and church polity and organization ( Christian , Mullins: 27). Some nonindigenous groups include the Anglican Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran denominations, and the United Church of Christ (Methodist, Reformed, Presbyterian, Congregational) ( Christian , Mullins"27). Among these two groups beliefs vary slightly.
Today Christianity has the reputation of a demanding religion. The origin can be traced back tothe Meiji Period , when missionaries focused on the samurai class (most literate and intellectual class of that time) ( Christian , Mullins: 96). Generally speaking, Japanese tend to focus more on ritual than on doctrine, and few commit to one religion. It is common, in fact, for a person to participate in both Shinto and Buddhist rites yearly ( Christian , Mullins: 192).
On another note, in the Taisho Period (1912-1926), Shinto priests began to perform weddings modelled after Western church weddings. Prior to this, weddings did not include religious figures ( Christian , Mullins: 192). Currently, Christian churches are competing for this role in "the Japanese religious division of labor" ( Christian , Mullins: 192). According to a 1992 survey, 31% of weddings that take place in Japanare Christian. This can be partly accredited to the power of popular American culture as wellas weddings publicized by movie stars ( Christian , Mullins: 193). The Christian church uses weddings as a means to expose young people to the religious faith and an invaluable business enterprise. The money earned from weddings means money for clergy, churches, missionaries, and hotels with wedding chapels ( Christian , Mullins: 193).
One unalienable tool in the Christian faith is the Bible . This book, the most read piece of literature in the world, is said to be the "word of God," and the source of religious instruction. The oldest existing Japanese version of the Bible is said to have been published in 1837. Prior to this, rough translations were sparsely available.
The Bible is broken down into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. While each book reveals a message through stories, the New Testament consists, too, of letters from Jesus' disciples. Five widely respected aspects of the Christian gospel are the the Ten Commandments , the creation myth in the Garden of Eden, the Trinity, the gift of free will, and the importance of faith. The foundation of the Christian definitions of right and wrong rests on the Ten Commandments , which are said to have been delivered to Moses from God in the book of Exodus. They are:
- Thou shalt not have strange gods before me.
- Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
- Remember thou keep holy the Sabbath Day.
- Honor they father and thy mother.
- Thou shalt not kill.
- Thou shalt not commit adultery.
- Thou shalt not steal.
- Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
- Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife.
- Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's things.
These ten rules outline the basic precepts behind the Christian ethic.
The first book in the Bible , Genesis, describes the creation of the world and all creations within. God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. This day is represented in the Sabbath, the day of rest. The first man and woman, Adam and Eve, lived ignorant of "evil" in the Garden of Eden where they enjoyed daily interactions with God. Eve, after the crafty persuasion of a serpent in the garden, ate a fruit from the forbidden tree at the center of Eden. The serpent represents evil. Both Adam and Eve suffered physical and moral deaths and were severed from their daily interactions with God. They also came to know the difference between good and evil. Other repercussions include pain in childbirth, suffering, and death. God also offered his mortal children a chance to return to him in heaven after death (Genesis 3). This return home is the ultimate goal of Christians.
The next important aspect of the Christian faith is the Holy Trinity: the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit. Like the three physical forms of water, these three elements are different faces of the same being. First, God, as previously mentioned, is the creator of the world and all creatures. The son, Jesus, is said to have lived among mortals for thirty-six years. Tortured and crucified because he said he was the son of God, Jesus is said to have died for the sins of all humankind. "'For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life'" (Johns 3.16). Because of this act, all people can ascend into heaven if they believe in God and ask for forgiveness. Finally, the Holy Spirit is the helper said to be with believers always. When Jesus left the physical world, God promised to be with Christians always, to guide and protect each person (Johns 14.15). The belief and understanding of the Holy Trinity is important in the Christian faith.
Next, God gave humans free will. Each person chooses his or her own actions, and God wills everyone to use their free will in worship. Each individual needs only to "open the door" to the Lord (Revelation 3.20). Finally, faith plays a vital role in Christianity. Good deeds alone will not get an individual into heaven, for "the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith. . .'The one who is righteous will live by faith'" (Romans 1.17). These five aspects of Christianity offer a vague outline of the basic belief system presented in the Bible .
Denominational churches in Japan generally follow the belief systems of their Western
counterparts. Most indigenous movements believe that "God's self-revelation" continued
past the Christian scriptures (
Christian
, Mullins: 28). God reveals still deeper truths to those open to the "ongoing work of
the Holy Spirit." Many groups feel such truths are hidden or not yet grasped by Western
Churches (
Christian
, Mullins: 28). Many of these native-orientated movements also believe God calls for
them to develop Christian faith within Japanese culture, therefore variances are
unavoidable among Eastern and Western churches (
Christian
, Mullins: 28). Uchimura Kanzo, an accredited founder of a Nonchurch movement in
Japan, related Buddha to Christ in a 1926 editorial, depicting the two as complementary
beings (
Christian
, Mullins: 62). He also likened Christ's teachings to the Confucian ethics of
loyalty, duty, and filial piety (
Christian
, Mullins: 62). These are some specific examples of Christian beliefs that have been
adjusted within the Japanese social setting.
Christ in Japan
The Schauwecker's Guide to Japan holds the copyright on this page andthe information within. As a guidebook, this page includes information about politics,regional issues, entertainment, current events, religion, tradition, history, population figures and more. This site seems to contain reliable information about a variety of facts, andthere are links to other facts are included.
http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2298.htmlGospel in Japan
This page is maintained by a private group called GOSPEL Japan. Their page includes links to belief explanations, arts and humanities, news and media events, and news articles from The Christian , a weekly newspaper. This page contains useful initial information aboutChristianity in modern Japan and gives the reader a worthy impression of such religious organizations.
http://www.gospeljapan.com/index-e.htmTokyo Church of Christ
This site is maintained by the Tokyo Church of Christ. In addition to beliefs and history, thispage also offers links to various other related sites. Details on service projects, meeting locations and times, and open invitations are also included.
http://www.intlcc.com/Tokyo/e/ewelcome.html"Lack of Oppression Hurts Christianity in Japan"
This New York Times article offers an interesting view on the current state of Christianity in Japan. This author argues that the lack of Christian persecution and/or oppression has led to a decline in youth involvement in recent years.
http://www.ishipress.com/japan-ch.htm"Religion in Contemporary Japanese Society"
This site includes an article by McFarland entitled, "Religion in Contemporary Japanese Society." Maintained by an informational organization called "Ask Asia," this article offers an examinationof Christianity in relation to Shinto and Buddhism (the two most well established religious tradtions in Japan).
http://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/readings/r000118.htmChristianity in Japan
This theologian's site offers a well organized historical timeline, statistics on religious organizations in Japan (not just Christianity), and a list of sources for research. Though one should always be careful with statistical figures, the timeline presents a detailed, easy-to-read list of the major historical events in the relationship between Japan and Christianity.
http://private.fuller.edu/~shew/research/xty.jpn/BasicFacts-XTYJpn.htmlThe Bible
For those with Japanese readers on their computers, this site offers a historical recount ofthe Bible's translation, the history of the Japanese Bible , an explanation of the work itself, and an explanation of the Old and New Testaments.
http://www.bible.or.jp/Japanese Demographic
This site provides the recent demographic figures of Japan. This site helps one to conceptualize the island nation through the characteristics of the people that live there.
http://www.stat.go.jp/151.htm
Created by
Jackie Fowler
For Sociology 497, Spring 1999
Last modified: 07/17/01